Root Metaphors Definition and Examples

A root metaphor is an image, narrative, or fact that shapes an individuals perception of the world and interpretation of reality. Also called a basic metaphor, master metaphor, or  myth. A root metaphor, says Earl MacCormac, is the most basic assumption about the nature of the world or experience that we can make when we try to give a description of it (Metaphor and Myth in Science and Religion, 1976). The concept of the root metaphor was introduced by American philosopher Stephen C. Pepper in World Hypotheses (1942). Pepper defined root metaphor as an area of empirical observation which is the point of origin for a world hypothesis. Examples and Observations Stephen C. PepperA man desiring to understand the world looks about for a clue to its comprehension. He pitches upon some area of common sense fact and tries to understand other areas in terms of this one. The original area becomes his basic analogy or root metaphor...If man is to be creative in the construction of a new world theory, he must dig among the crevices of common sense. There he may find the pupa of a new moth or butterfly. This will be alive, and grow, and propagate but no synthetic combination of the legs of one specimen and the wings of another will ever move except as their fabricator pushes them about with his tweezers.Karou YamamotoThe root metaphor is the comprehensive, organizing analogy that helps in making sense of experiences, interpreting the world, and defining the meaning of life...Is the whole universe a perfect machine? Is the society an organism? ... Is life a long, arduous journey? Is the present a phase in the fateful karmic cycle? Is social interaction a game? Though mostly implicit, a large set of assumptions stem out of each of such root metaphors to form ones  Weltanschauung  [world view]...Certainly, life will look very differently to a person whose metaphor is that of a ruthless, gladiatorial combat to the bitter end than to another who perceives an aspen grove wherein each tree grows individually while sustained by a common network of roots. Accordingly, the two lives will be lived very differently. Life seen as a cathedral to be built, as the gambling game of craps, or as the oyster that creates pearl out of an irritant grain of sand--each supposition generates its own script for life.Needless to say, a collective life can be similarly influenced by some commonly held root metaphors, and a whole generation, organization, community, nation, continent, or even world may appear to fall under the spell of the so-called Zeitgeist (the spirit of the age) to reveal certain, particular perspectives, ideas, sentiments, attitude s, or practices.Alan F. SegalA root metaphor or myth usually takes the form of a story about the cosmos. Although the story may be amusing or enjoyable, it also has four serious functions: to order experience by explaining the beginning of time and of history; to inform people about themselves by revealing the continuity between key events in the history of the society and the life of the individual; to illustrate a saving power in human life by demonstrating how to overcome a flaw in society or personal experience; and to provide a moral pattern for individual and community action by both negative and positive example.

A Genetic Engineering Outline - 598 Words

o TH Morgan concluded that chromosome play an important part in heredity and the passing on genetic traits o Griffith injected mice with different types of bacteria and when he injected them with S cells, the mice died. When the mice were injected with the R cells, they continued to live. The mice would survive if they were injected with heat-killed S Cells but died when given a dosage of heat-killed S Cells and normal R Cells. The reaction of the two cells was the possible and most likely death of the mouse. o Avery, Macleod, and McCarthy took the findings of Griffith and wanted to reason why the combination of the two cells killed the mouse. The took the different parts which would cause the DNA, Protein, and RNA and eventually eliminated them one by one. After all of that, only bacteria that was exposed to the S-strain DNA were transformed. This gave the idea that DNA is what was controlling living things and was the outcome of this experiment o Hershey and Chase Radioactively tag ged and then tracked infected bacteria in order to prove that DNA was in fact the molecule of heredity and transferring of genetic material o Chargaff proved two very important rules about DNA, †¢ All species have different amounts of adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine in their DNA †¢ The Amount of Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and Thymine in each species’ DNA is different. o Crick and Watson used X-ray diffraction data, which Rosalind Franklin developed which was then used to develop the ‘doubleShow MoreRelatedDna And Ethics Of Recombinant Dna1601 Words   |  7 Pages Recombinant DNA and Ethics Brooke Boland BIO/410 - Genetics October 23, 2017 Miranda Gauthier Recombinant DNA and Ethics Recombinant DNA technology has become a powerful influence to many fields including medicine, pharmaceuticals and agriculture. 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International Business Environment Essay Free Essays

string(186) " Mexico trade in goods in billions of US dollars Importantly, lower NAFTA tariffs on pharmaceuticals have fostered greater choice for imports needed \(US Department of Commerce, 1994\)\." EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Careful consideration must be given to key factors before a company makes the decision to expand into foreign markets. PharmaMed, a U.S. We will write a custom essay sample on International Business Environment Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now based multinational manufacturer and distributor of medicines and consumer healthcare company, has identified Mexico as an extremely promising country for expansion. It is true that U.S. commercial expansion in Mexico has grown considerably over the past years, especially since the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) began promoting industrial development. Nonetheless, PharmaMed is aware that Mexico is not a straightforward country to operate in and economic, cultural and political forces can dent commercial objectives. This paper seeks to examine the suitability of the target country for further pharmaceutical expansion. We will conduct an analysis of cultural, political, economic, legal and protectionist issues in order to devise an international expansion strategy. The findings will determine recommendations on whether PharmaMed should adopt a trade only policy or venture into Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). 1 Introduction Globalisation progressed significantly in the past decade facilitated by modern communication, transportation and improved infrastructure as well as political choice to consciously open markets to international trade and finance (WTO, GATT, as well as regional trade blocs: EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, etc). Besides the possibility of increased sales and revenues, there are several reasons why companies should consider targeting the global marketplace. Toftoy (1999) identifies the drive to offset sales decline in the domestic market. Even if the sales are not declining in the domestic market, being present in other markets can act as a safeguard for the future. A further international trade theory is put forward by Vernon (1966, 1971) and Wells (1968, 1969) arguing that a country will begin by exporting its product and later undertaking foreign direct investment as the product moves through its life cycle. Levitt’s 1965 Product Life cycle model illustrates this pattern (see figure 1) Essentially, macroeconomics risks and operational risks are diversified by engaging in business in more than one country. If operations are underperforming in one country, hopefully, the performance will be offset by profitable performance in another country. Another argument for overseas trade is the idea of improving competitive position. This, ties in with the opportunity to lower manufacturing and labour costs. Additionally, possible funding benefits from the trade block to which the host country belongs may also influence a company to expand overseas. However, cultural and language barriers, political issues and variations in religious beliefs, societal norms and business negotiation styles impact how business should be conducted with international counterparts. The aim of this report is to provide guidance to PharmaMed’s proposals to expand overseas into Mexico. Key analysis on the host country will help the company decide whether to engage upon an export only policy or to undertake investment in the country. 1.1 The Pharmaceutical industry: PharmaMed Consistent with most industries â€Å"the economic, social, cultural and political changes that come with globalization create both opportunities and challenges for pharmaceutical industry† (Mansell, 2010). The Wall Street Journal (July 2009, cited in Medical News) pinpoints and an important development in the U.S. pharmaceutical industry in its observation that for the first time in half a century, sales of prescription drugs declined in 2009, historically the industry’s biggest and most profitable market. Consequently, the industry reaction is a more favourable perception of expansion into developing countries. Indeed, Pfizer has set up operations in China, India, Brazil, Russia and Turkey. With sales totalling $1.4 billon from emerging markets in the first quarter of 2009, the company is â€Å"benefiting from the belief†¦ in the developing world that branded medicines are worth paying a premium for because they are safer and more effective than generics†( Wall Street Journal, July 2010). A look at such positive success stories both encourages and forces PharmaMed to follow suit in order to maximize revenue growth. Like its competitors PharmaMed has witnessed declining sales in its primary medication distribution offering. As a result senior management has set in place investigative plans to expand into the developing country markets. As such, the focus is on the E7 Countries (China, India, Brazil, Russia, Indonesia, Mexico, and Turkey) in particular Mexico. This interest is based on the literature that ‘the E7 countries represent increasing opportunities for pharmaceutical companies constrained by maturing markets in the West’ (Espicom Business Intelligence, 2010). 1.2 Mexico Emerging Pharmaceuticals Markets Globally (2008) reports that the E7 pharmaceutical markets are expected to grow at a CAGR 11% between 2007 and 2012, reaching revenues worth nearly $116 billion. In contrast the G7 pharmaceutical markets are projected to grow at CAGR 4.95% between the same periods. The question is what makes Mexico a favourable environment for expansionSignificantly, Espicom Business Intelligence (2010) in its pharmaceutical market analysis report observes that 2010 saw the announcement of regulatory measures to simplify regulatory procedures. Which include the transmission of drug registration or increasing OTC (over the counter) medicines already registered in the USA and Canada. These measures should prove to be attractive to a manufacturer and distribution of Medication Company, such as PharmaMed. 2The business system and the national culture The concept of National Business System as launched by Whitley (1999) centres around the belief that companies do not operate in a vacuum, but are economic actors affected by numerous influences from the environment. Companies operate in markets, business sectors and have to comply with law and regulations. The majority of these influences are linked to the nation in which the company is operating. The U.S. and Mexico share many common interests related to trade, investment, and regulatory cooperation are closely tied in other areas as well. Indeed, the economic relationship with Mexico has strengthened considerably under the 1994 NAFTA alliance in the form of the 1993 and 1998 Foreign Investment Law (FIL). Which, provided a broad scope for foreign investment and simplified the process of registering foreign companies. Figure 2 shows that as a result trade between the two countries have more than tripled since the agreement was implemented (Villarreal, 2010). Figure 2: Trade effectives of NAFTA implementation. Total U.S. Mexico trade in goods in billions of US dollars Importantly, lower NAFTA tariffs on pharmaceuticals have fostered greater choice for imports needed (US Department of Commerce, 1994). A world class patent regime in Mexico, bolstered by NAFTA’ patent provision, gives innovators a favourable environment to launch new components. Indeed, the Mexican pharmaceutical market is the leading and most developed in Latin America and the ninth largest worldwide, with sales valued at US$13.5 billion in 2006 (Massachusetts Office of International Trade and Investment (MOITI, 1996). It is important to take the state as the basic geopolitical unit for studying the operation of companies. States remain the primary unit of political competition and mobilization. Thus, individuals and collective actors usually organize themselves at the national level to compete for state resources and legitimacy. As such an organization wishing to enter trading activities within a given country will be subject to regulations, and the pharmaceutical industry i s no exception. Thus, MOITI (1996) cites that according to current regulations, in order to export pharmaceutical products to Mexico, the exporting country must register and import those pharmaceutical products through a host pharmaceutical manufacturer, a local manufacturer holding a sanitary licence for such products. This firm acts a â€Å"guarantor† with local authorities vis a vis the foreign company, in particular with regards to manufacturing practices, registration and quality control. Connected with the national business system are cultural issues that will inevitably come into play in the international trading process. How is this reflective in the pharmaceutical industryAnalytical insight into Mexican culture reveals the importance of the family; the deeply held rooted Roman Catholic religion, the nationalist pride, the high degree of personal sensitivity of Mexicans and the importance given to time. All of which have implications in communication styles, decision-making, negotiating, contracting and planning and business etiquette. Cultural sensitivity must be the foundation of business activities. The literature defines cultural sensitivity in rather general terms, such as â€Å"understanding the cultural context of each market and the degree which (markets) are culturally similar† (Toyne and Walters, 1993). There is, however, agreement that cultural sensitivity requires cultural awareness, avoidance of culture-bound thinking and reduction of cultural b iases (Douglas and Craig, 1983, Toyne and Walters, 1993). There is also consensus that culture is multidimensional. For example, Hofstede (1991) identifies five dimensions along which culture differs: power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity and long term orientation. Figure 3 illustrates the results of these dimensions when applied to Mexico. In carrying out our analysis on Hofstede’s cultural dimensional scores we will draw on information from the itim International website. As can be seen Mexico’s highest Hofstede dimension is Uncertainty Avoidance (82), indicating that society’s low level of tolerance for uncertainty, does not readily accept change and is risk adverse. Mexico’s low Individualism (30) ranking indicates that an inclination to collectivism rather than to individualism. This is manifest in close long term commitment to the ‘member group’, be it family, extended family, or extended relationships. A high Masculinity ranking (69) indicates a high degree of gender differentiation roles. The male dominates a significant portion of society and power structures. Finally, the high ranking Power Distance Index (81) is indicative of a high level of inequality of power and wealth within Mexican society. To achieve an appreciation of Mexico’s and the USA’s cultura l makeup it is vital to provide a comparative study of Hofstede’s analysis of cultural dimensions applied to the USA (see figure 4). Figure 4: Geert Holstede Cultural Dimensional scores for USA Importantly, the USA’s Individualism score is the highest in the world, demonstrating the high extent to which people look after themselves and their immediate family only. The Power Distance score of 40 indicates that U.S. society is decentralized with a flatter organizational structure, a smaller portion of supervisors and employees empowered to make their own decisions. A high masculine score places greater value on success, money and material possessions. Americans score 62 on the masculinity, 24% higher than the world average. The USA’s UAI score of 46 is 38% lower than the world average. This suggests that Americans tolerate much more risk and are more comfortable with ambiguities and rapid change. Finally, the USA’s low LTO score of 29 indicates that the importance of the beliefs of meeting obligations and also reflect a tendency for an appreciation for cultural traditions. In order to achieve successful international trading results in Mexico PharmaMed must respect Mexican cultural strong uncertainty avoidance, low individualism, centralized power structures and higher masculinity scores. The purpose of employing Hofstede’s dimensions is to show that U.S. culture and Mexican cultural differences do not doom overseas expansion to failure. Instead, they suggest that cultural sensitivity and cultural adaptation on the part of both countries is especially important to the success of the venture. This chapter focused on how understanding of the local culture and business environment can give managers an advantage in the pharmaceutical industry. Such differences in culture and the way of life in Mexico necessitate that managers develop international expertise to manage on a contingency basis according to the host-country environment. International managers can benefit greatly from understanding the nature, dimensions, and variables of a specific cultu re and how these affect work and organisational processes. This cultural awareness enables them to develop appropriate policies and determine how to plan, organize, lead, and control in a specific international setting. Such a process of adaptation to the environment is necessary to implement strategy successfully. It also leads to effective interaction in a workforce of increasing cultural diversity, both in the United States and Mexico 3US-Mexico trading patterns in the Pharmaceutical INDUSTRY Importantly, lower NAFTA tariffs on pharmaceuticals have fostered greater choice for imports needed (US Department of Commerce, 1994). A world class patent regime inMexico, bolstered by NAFTA’ patent provision, gives innovators a favourable environment to launch new components. Indeed, the Mexican pharmaceutical market is the leading and most developed in Latin America and the ninth largest worldwide. According to Business Monitor International‘s (BMI) Mexico Pharmaceuticals Healthcare Report (2010) the total drug market in Mexico will increase from US$9.79bn in 2009 to US$18.96bn by 2014 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 14.1%. Thereafter the CAGR will slow to 7.6% to 2019, giving a final market value of US$27.48bn. Per-capita spending on medicines will be US$170 in 2014; up from US$91 in 2009, while the proportion of GDP dedicated to drug spending was 1.13% in 2009 and will reach 1.25% by 2014. The presence of the US Food and Drug Administration FDA) in Mexico should strengthen existing regulatory ties between the two countries. BMI (2010) expects the FDA to be in close contact with Mexican authorities regarding food and medicine production in order to boost the safety of all products destined for the US, while also encouraging regulatory harmonisation and knowledge transfer. How can PharmaMed compete in this marketClearly to survive in such a competitive market PharmaMed will have to be relevant and current in the Mexican pharmaceutical industry, whilst being legally protected. This means being fully up-to-date on all regulations regarding exporting and importing, licence requirements, approval of brand names, labelling requirements, certificates of quality and marketing practices. We suggest that entry into the Mexican market should initially be aimed at Seguro Popular, the Mexican state-run health insurance scheme for those on low incomes or without other healthcare options. This is because according to BMI (2010) Seguro Popular intends to enrol an additional 12mn people in 2010. In 2011, another 6mn people will be added to the scheme, giving a total of 18mn new additions and comprising the last remaining segment of the Mexican population eligible to be included in the programme. This coincides with changing health patterns in the Mexican population – pointing at an increase in diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, stroke and cancer (Roberts and Stott, 2010). Since we specialise in medications for these diseases, taking advantage of such changes should give us a competitive edge. 4The Exchange Rate Regime The literature agrees that the Mexican currency crisis of 1994 induced important changes in view of policy makers and economists concerning choice of exchange rate regimes (Villerreal, 2010). A number of authors began to argue that a world of high capital mobility, intermediate regimes are highly prone to currency crisis. The notion gradually started to emerge suggesting that developing countries should either have a pure floating exchange or a hard ‘peg’ regime. As a result after the crisis Mexico let the peso float while using a monetary policy of monetary aggregates to control inflation. In 1999 the country switched to an inflation targeting monetary regime, with monetary instruments to determine interest rates. Forex Realm (2011) report that one US Dollar equates to 13.2085 Mexican pesos. The observation is also made that like the U.S. the Mexican peso is considered to be one of the important national currencies, which is used in millions of currency trading and conv ersion. However, Pharmaletter (Jan. 2011) states that the current Mexican peso against the U.S. dollar is causing uncertainty, with increasing pharmaceutical costs. This is expected to affect previously registered import levels. The overall pharmacy sector is facing stagnation, into negative growth. On a positive note, the downturn and evolving regulatory environment are fuelling generics consumption. This market doubled in 2010. In this chapter we also need to concentrate on the falling value of U.S dollar against major currencies (see figure 5). Figure 5: Deliotte Research Study (2006) As identified in a Deloitte Research Study (2006) Steep and long term shifts in the foreign exchange rates create discrepancies in cost and revenue models resulting in operational and strategic risk. To formulate effective risk management strategies, PharmaMed needs to assess the risk exposures rising from sensitivities in cost and revenues under various exchange rate scenarios. Exchange rate shifts can create shifts across the supply chain. If the dollar slides, pharmaceutical companies with offshore sourcing and operations may face soaring input material and shipping costs and supplier risks. PharmaMed would see a hike in labour costs in dollar terms. On the demand side if the company decides to pass on the increased costs to customers it may result in reduced demands or loss of sales. Moreover, the exchange rate risks faced by customers can impact PharmaMed directly, significantly rising strategic and operation risks. 4.1 Political Risks Risk in international trade is unavoidable, especially when it involves countries in the developing world (Busse, 2005). Among many of the risks involved in it, the political ones are the most difficult to measure, while having the potential of greatest damage as well. The political risks themselves can be classified according to their different origins and etiologies. That is, change of government, violent conflicts, sanctions and political trade risks 4.1.1 Change of Government The political risks that can confront an international trader can arise in several ways. The most common of these is the ‘change of government’ (Fitzpatrick, 1931). 4.1.2 Violent conflicts Developing countries face a higher risk of violent conflicts (Oetzel et al. 2007). Violent conflicts, whether internal or external are invariably damaging to trade 4.1.3 Sanctions Another political risk to international trade exists in the form of conflicts without violence. International sanctions are the main form of these, which may be precipitated by an action of the host country. 4.1.4 Political trade risks A peculiar form of political risks is changes in trading pattern imposed by politics. An example is a sudden ban on all imports or exports of a particular commodity, due to the sudden popular mood against those trades (Orden, 2004). How do the above apply to MexicoBremer (2010) argues that raging drug gang violence, a tepid economic recovery, flagging momentum on economic reforms and declining oil output are risks to watch for in Mexico. All of these ties in with the above citations. In relation to the pharmaceutical industry the publication, Pharmaceutical Technology (Jan 2009) identifies that a significant hurdle still to contend with is protection of intellectual property, while the large-scale prevalence of counterfeit drugs remains a major challenge. How can PharmaMed manage the political riskUnfortunately, there isn’t a perfect solution. Investing always has risks — and political risk is one of them. Yet without risk there would be no reward. To plan for managing a risk, the first step is to compute the probability of its occurrence. Once that is done, a decision needs to be taken as to whether in the light of that risk and the probable loss arising from it; it makes any sense to continue with the business. A difficult and tricky question is to quantify this risk in monetary terms, which alone is a sensible indicator for the need to spend on planning for it. Once it is decided to continue with business in spite of these risks, then necessary provisions need to be made for the losses likely to arise from them, while also attempting to hedge against each of those risks to the best extent possible. 5FDI or Export In light of our research should PharmaMed choose an exporting strategy or a FDI (Foreign Direct Investments) in expanding into MexicoWhen an organisation has made a decision to enter an overseas market, there are a variety of options open to it. These options vary with cost, risk and the degree of control that can be exercised over them. The simplest form of entry strategy is exporting using either a direct or indirect method such as an agent, in the case of the former, or countertrade, in the case of the latter. More complex forms include truly global operations, which may involve joint ventures, or export processing zones (all of which are forms of Foreign Direct investment). Having decided on the form of export strategy, decisions have to be made on the specific channels. On the other hand, FDI offers more far reaching influences for the investing country because it involves ownership, whole or partial control of a company in a foreign country. Drawing on the research presented in this paper, especially those that relate to uncertain pharmaceutical future growth in Mexico, we propose a mixed foreign market entry strategy. That is, combining FDI with exporting rather than choosing one single foreign market entry. The research by Johanson and Vahlne (1977) shows that many firms minimize the uncertainty risks in internationalization by adopting an incremental approach. Specifically, they expand their foreign operations gradually, beginning with entry into foreign markets with similar cultures before moving on to the dissimilar ones. And, for each foreign market entry, the process starts with exporting, followed by setting up local sales subsidiaries, and then the establishment of production facilities. We believe that this incremental process will allow us to learn from the experience we acquire in the initial operations, and use this knowledge to reduce the uncertainty we face in subsequent expansion efforts. Additionally, we believe that this will protects PharmaMed from the downside risks of failure by increasing overseas resource commitment over a certain time period, contingent on the performance o f prior foreign operations. 6CONCLUSION This report has assessed PharmaMed’s intended expansion into Mexico, in light of cultural, industrial and macroeconomic factors. The results garnered from this analysis highlight that for PharmaMed to achieve successful operations in Mexico, it must understand its culture and develop the necessary expertise required to manage the host environment business. Exchange and Political risks are also factors that have been identified as critical to the success of PharmaMed’s expansion into Mexico, and this must be addressed appropriately. The incremental process of foreign expansion has also been found to be an ideal option for expansion into Mexico, which could start with exporting, then setting up local sales subsidiaries, and finally the establishment of production facilities. Therefore, based on these analyses, it is recommended that PharmaMed does expand into Mexico, with particular emphasis on managing political, exchange rate and cultural issues that may arise. 7Recommendations Before acting we have to plan our approach. Here are helpful recommendations for PharmaMed: 1. Research local product requirements Find out about customer preferences, local standards and product regulations. We may need to change the product’s appearance, or to fundamentally redesign it. We may need to translate labelling and instructions redesign packaging to suit the local market. We may even need to change your product’s name or logo if they have unfortunate connotations locally. 2. Find out how local commercial practice differs from the U.S. Find out about local business behaviour. Investigate how products are marketed and sold, including any legal restrictions. 3. Identify the key contacts we need to build relationships with. Key contacts may include customers or suppliers, agents, trade organisations and government departments. 4. Decide what use we will make of agents . The way the market operates may mean that it is easier to sell through a local agent (or distributor), rather than directly. In the Mexican Pharmaceutical industry this is a legal requirement. A local agent can be a valuable source of market information, and can help us find customers and build relationships with them. Take legal advice before entering into a contractual relationship with an agent or distributor. It can be difficult and expensive to terminate the relationship later on. The above recommendations are essential for determining success in PharmaMed’s overseas efforts. Researching products and commercial requirements, while aligning with overseas contacts will give PharmaMed a competitive Edge. To the achieve this, the company will have to embark a series of managerial and staff training programmes. Projects should then be delegated to relevant departments to see the operation through. 8REFERENCES Boone, L., and Kurtz, D.L. (2009) Contemporary Business, Wiley and Sons Inc, 800pp Bremer, C. (2010) FACTBOX: Key Political Risks to Watch in Mexico [online], available: www.reuters.com [22 January 2011] Busse, M. (2005) Measuring Political Risks to Foreign Investment, Ashgate Publishing, London, 200pp Business Monitor International (2010) Mexico Pharmaceutical and Healthcare Report Q2, www.businessmonitor.com [22 January 2011] Calenti, L. (2010) The Drug Industry and the NAFTA Experience [online], available: http://www.thepharmaletter.com/ [22 January 2011] Deloitte (2006) Global Economic Outlook 2006: Global Risks, Regional Opportunities, www.deloitte.com [22 January 2011] Douglas, S. P. and Craig, C. S. (1983) International Marketing Research. Prentice Hall, New York, 456pp Episcom Business International (2010) The Outlook for Pharmaceuticals Forex Realm (2010) Exchange rates between Mexican Peso and US Dollar [online], Available: http://www.forexrealm.com/forex-rates/ [22 January 2011] Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and organizations — software of the mind, McGraw Hill, New York, 191pp Itim International (2009) Geert Hofstede Cultural Dimensions [online], Available: http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_mexico.shtml [22 January 2011] Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J. E. (1977) The Internationalization of the Firm: A model of knowledge development and increasing foreign market commitments, Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 8, p23 Levitt, T. (1965) Exploit the Product Life Cycle. Harvard Business Review, November/December, pp.81-84 Massachusetts Office of International Trade and Investment (2006) Life Science Companies Doing Business in Massachusetts: An Introduction U.S. and Massachusetts Laws for Foreign Life Science Companies The Pharmaletter (2011) Outlook For Pharmaceutical Markets In Latin America, Now Worth a Total of $50 Billion [online], available: http://www.thepharmaletter.com/ [22 January 2011] Roberts, I. and Stott, R. (2010) Doctors and Climate Change, The Lancet, Vol. 376 (9755), pp1801 – 1802 RNCOS (2009) Emerging Pharmaceutical Markets Globally [online], available: http://www.rncos.com/Report/IM081.htm [22 January 2011] Toftoy, C. (1999) Management Training to Gain For Small And Medium Sized Enterprises: Focus On Latin. Center For Advancement Of Small Business. George Washington University. Toyne, B. and Walters, P.G. (1993) Global Marketing Management: A Strategic Prespective, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 394pp US Department of Commerce (1994) International Trade Administration [online], available: www.commerce.gov [21 January 2011] Vernon, R. (1966) International Investment and international Trade in the product cycle, Quarterly Journal of Economics 80, p190-207 Villarreal, M.A. (2010) U.S.- Mexico Economic Relations: Trends, Issues And Implications. Congressional Research Service. Wells, L. T. (1968) A product life cycle for international tradeJournal of Marketing, Vol. 33, July pp. 1-6. Wells, L.T. (1969) Test of a product cycle model of international trade Quarterly Journal of Economics, February, pp. 152-62. Whitley, R. (2007) Business Systems and Organisational Capablities: The Institutional Structuring of Competitive Competences.OxfordUniversityPress. 487pp How to cite International Business Environment Essay, Essays

Three Principles Describe How Economy as a Whole Works free essay sample

Prices rise when the government prints too much money because more money in circulation reduces the value of money, causing inflation. Society faces a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment that is only temporary. Policymakers have some short-term ability to exploit this relationship using various policy instruments. Quantity of Clothing Produced the frontier), point B is an inefficient point (inside the frontier), and point C is an infeasible point (outside the frontier). Microeconomics is the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets. Macroeconomics is the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growth. 2. An example of a positive statement is â€Å"a higher price of coffee causes me to buy more tea. † It is a positive statement because it is a claim that describes the world as it is. An example of a normative statement is â€Å"the government should restrain coffee prices. † It is a normative statement because it is a claim that prescribes how the world should be. We will write a custom essay sample on Three Principles Describe How Economy as a Whole Works or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many other examples are possible. Parts of the government that regularly rely on advice from economists are the Department of the Treasury in designing tax policy, the Department of Labor in analyzing data on the employment situation, the Department of Justice in enforcing the nation’s antitrust laws, the Congressional Budget Office in evaluating policy proposals, and the Federal Reserve in analyzing economic developments. Many other answers are possible. 3. Economic advisers to the president might disagree about a question of policy because of differences in scientific judgments or differences in alues. C A B Quantity of Food Produced Figure 1 The effects of a drought are shown in Figure 2. The drought reduces the amount of food that can be produced, shifting the production possibilities frontier inward. Quantity of Clothing Produced Chapter 2 1. Economics is like a science because economists devise theories, collect data, and analyze the data in an attempt to verify or refute their theories. In other words, economics is based on the scientific method. Figure 1 shows the production possibilities frontier for a society that produces food and clothing. Point A is an efficient point shows Robinson Crusoe’s production possibilities frontier   for gathering coconuts and catching fish. If Crusoe lives by himself, this frontier limits his consumption of coconuts and fish, but if he can trade with natives on the island, he will possibly be able to consume at a point outside his production possibilities frontier. Fish Caught group of sellers (who determine supply) of a particular good or service.

The Good Earth Essays (1612 words) - The Good Earth, O-Lan

The Good Earth The Good Earth The Good Earth, by Pearl S. Buck, is a tale of a farmer who rises from a commoner to a wealthy land owner. The setting is pre-Revolutionary China, sometime in the 20th century. The story is one of a farmer who becomes a wealthy man through hard work while facing droughts and floods. He becomes very rich, but forgets his true love, the earth, which got him to where he was. The mood of the story is serious. Droughts and floods affect the outcome of crops, which in turn, affect the people who need them to survive. As the story progresses, the mood changes to become more light hearted and careless. It is typical of today's society of how the main character becomes rich and then forgets what it was like to be on the other side. He spends money carelessly and neglects to remember how his life was just a few months before. The main element of the story is definitely character. We look through the eyes of the main character and see how he, as a person, grows and matures.There are many characters in the story. The first is Wang Lung, a farmer and the main character of the story. The author tells the story through his view of life. We see Wang Lung at the beginning of the story as a young man, full of energy and love for his land. He has been raised on the land he now farms and takes great pride in maintaining it. Later in the story, he becomes a rich man, and forgets his land, "One's flesh and blood." As he finds out that money is not everything and cannot by happiness, he realizes his fault and returns to the earth. O-lan is Wang Lung's wife in the story. She was a slave girl raised in the great House of Hwang. Wang Lung buys her from the house, but he sees that "there is no beauty of any kind in her face." But Wang Lung cannot afford a beautiful wife, for he is only a farmer. O-lan is a strong, but quite character. She bears hardships as they come and gives Wang Lung four children. Wang Lung seems to care for her, but she in return shows very little emotion. She is a hard character to reach and only before she dies, do we see the real side of O-lan. The next main character is Lotus, a prostitute living at the tea shop in town. During the story, Wang Lung becomes ashamed of his plain wife. He ventures into the tea shop in town and pays for a prostitute, Lotus. She excites him and "kept him fevered and thirsty, even if she gave him his will of her." Wang Lung falls in love with this woman and buys her to live in his house. She is a woman of delicacy and elegance, the complete opposite of O-lan, who she comes to dislike. The two live in opposite parts of the house, which keeps them happy. Lotus is another character who is blocked out from the reader. We only know that she is a material person, asking for jewels and expensive clothes and food from Wang Lung. There are many other characters who play fairly large, but not main parts in the story. Wang Lung has four children, three boys and a girl. The two oldest boys become rivals later in the story and offer Wang Lung "no peace" in his old age. The girl, who he affectionately calls "the fool," does not speak, but with her empty smile and sweet gaze fills Wang Lung with intense love and sadness. Wang Lung also lives with his father, who in his old age, sits in the sun most of the day only calling out to be fed. The story begins on Wang Lung's wedding day. He heads to the House of Hwang where he buys his wife, O-lan, from the Old Mistress there. He finds his wife plain, but a good worker and a strong-willed person. She works beside him on his land, harvesting the grain to sell. It is not long before she bears his first child, a son. But after birth, she returns to the fields to finish with the day's work. This shocked me and gave me an idea of how strong a person she really was. Year after year, O-lan and Wang Lung worked the fields, saving the extra money for whenever they needed it. O-lan bore three more kids, two sons and a

English as a Second Language Among Freshmen Students

English as a Second Language Among Freshmen Students Free Online Research Papers English as a Second Language Among Freshmen Students English is now acknowledged as one of the Philippines’ major language. This is because most of the Filipinos use it in any means of communication to interconnect with other people especially to the foreign ones. And since our generation is excelling, the English language is now taught to students even at an early age. And to give some proofs to the nay says about students speaking the English language, I made a study with the primary concern of their proficiency. This study shows how the freshmen students in the University of Santo Thomas AMV – College of Accountancy respond and retort with their skills in the English language. Through this report, we will be able to know their potency and weaknesses as well as their capabilities with their act of responses. This will also help us realize how rampant English is to students and to the youth. This research work precedence not only to the dexterity of the students but also to all the people concern. I may have used of constricted apprentices but it must not affect our thinking that the effect will only occur to all my respondents. We must also put into our minds that we are all just the same as my novices and all the end products are applicable and pertinent to us. May my research work help us all in understanding the situation of the newly accepted English language and may we all be considerate in expanding its significance to our lives and the lives of the next generations. INTRODUCTION I. Background of the Study Being a college student taking up BS Accountancy in one of the most prestige universities in the Philippines, University of Santo Thomas, I was commissioned to make an inquiry with reference to the English expertise among its students. It has been part of the prospectus to give students this kind of project to be able to arise of explorations that might as well help others in any matter with pertains to the topic. Also, this nature of scheme was given to us not because it is a vital prerequisite to be competent to cease the English program but also to be able to show how well students have implicit the essential rudiments of making a good and effective research paper. Though this project necessitates a lot of work, I concur to the system of giving research papers to apprentices since these will help them amplify their thinking, gain more knowledge and nurture their psyche for noteworthy rationales. And since I was given the chance of making myself renowned in this variation, I am ver y much keen to proffer everything I can to come up with a good research paper and to show not only to my beloved professor but also to my classmates and colleagues that I can make an effective research paper and make myself proud of what the results may be. II. Objectives ? to present a good research paper in relation to the given topic ? to bestow and unravel wholly the statistics heaped during the studies ? to give corroboration to the things in the mentality of the readers concerning only on the topics given ? to elucidate things and give emphasis on things being studied ? to come up with a conclusion to gratify the needs in this research III. Significance This research paper intends to expound fully and logically the attestations and studies needed regarding the given topic entitled â€Å"English as a Second Language among Freshmen in the AMV – College of Accountancy in University of Santo Thomas 2006 and 2007.† This study also aims to give clarifications pertaining to the freshmen’s viewpoint with the English language. With this, I am trying to show how the English vernacular affects students with their studies and everyday life. It is now widely accepted that the foreign language has already been part of our own culture and with this reason, studying with English methodologies are being taught to students even at a very early age. The reason is because our generation is accelerating and we must not wonder if we will one day wake up with a totally different genre than before where we are all speaking the English language. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The Philippines is the third largest English speaking country in the world. It has a rich history combining Asian, European, and American influences. Prior to Spanish colonization in 1521, the Filipinos had a rich culture and were trading with the Chinese and the Japanese. Spain’s colonization brought about the construction of Intramuros in 1571, a â€Å"Walled City† comprised of European buildings and churches, replicated in different parts of the archipelago. In 1898, after 350 years and 300 rebellions, the Filipinos, with leaders like Jose Rizal and Emilio Aguinaldo, succeeded in winning their independence. In 1898, the Philippines became the first and only colony of the United States. Following the Philippine-American War, the United States brought widespread education to the islands. Filipinos fought alongside Americans during World War II, particularly at the famous battle of Bataan and Corregidor which delayed Japanese advance and saved Australia. They then waged a guerilla war against the Japanese from 1941 to 1945. The Philippines regained its independence in 1946. Filipinos are a freedom-loving people, having waged two peaceful, bloodless revolutions against what were perceived as corrupt regimes. The Philippines is a vibrant democracy, as evidenced by 12 English national newspapers, 7 national television stations, hundreds of cable television stations, and 2,200 radio stations. METHODOLOGY I. Respondents As a specified requirement, I made use of respondents which are freshmen students only from the University of Santo Thomas AMV – College of Accountancy. And since given with maximum of 10 respondents, I seek help from my fellow freshmen students and they agreed to answer in my ready-made survey. They answered the survey truthfully, which was prepared by my professor and instantly had been distributed to her students during our class meeting. The respondents were all from 1A19 namely Myla Aquino, Catherine Bautista, Inigo Miguel Hinayon, Leon Manalastas, Nikko Relojo, Christian Roxas, Adrian Santos, Jen Solano, Jason Soriano, and Miguel Tuy. And since they are all in one section, it was a relief because I can let them answer the survey altogether which made it a lot easier. They even gave their insights about the research title which I was able to use in maneuver other more information that I can use to have a better outcome of my work. II. Procedure I cordially asked the students, whose names are presented above, to answer the survey I handed them and told them my purpose. They were accommodating in a way that they were never hesitant of helping me do my research paper. I gave them a foreword of the topic so that they will be erudite about it and it may help them to understand more why I study such case. I pledged to the respondents that every answer they committed will not be used against them. All the respondents spent much time in thinking very carefully how well they will answer it as candidly as possible. III. Design The survey is to be answered in a matter of scaling. The respondents have to rate the items from 1 to 5 wherein 1 means â€Å"Poor†, 2 means â€Å"Fair†, 3 means â€Å"Good†, 4 means â€Å"Very Good†, and 5 means â€Å"Excellent†. Through this, I will be able to know how well they have mastered the skills in each scenario cited in every item. This type of experimental design is generally strong in internal validity. Yet, there are some instances wherein other respondents have deleterious effects due to their knowledge of the scenario and how they really face it. Overall, this study can be considered strong with regards to internal validity. Research Papers on English as a Second Language Among Freshmen StudentsStandardized TestingHip-Hop is ArtResearch Process Part OneInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesQuebec and CanadaAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 Europe19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia

Audience Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Audience Analysis Paper - Essay Example In the first place, it is necessary to consider the characteristics of the audience which can influence the communication. Admittedly, these characteristic features should be considered before the speaker starts working on the presentation. For instance, it is necessary to find out the number of listeners. This will enable the speaker to prepare the necessary quantity of visuals (Booher, 2002, p.48). Booher (2002) also points out that such data as â€Å"age, sex, race, religion, or political bent of the audience† are also important in terms of the preparation for the presentation. This information will assist the speaker to find the necessary communication channels with all members of the group. Booher (2002) states that it is essential to consider educational background of the audience as well. Apart from these characteristics it is also important to find out whether there are â€Å"taboo subjects or issues† (Booher, 2002, p.48). Thus, if the speaker touches upon some of such questions, the presentation effectiveness can be challenged since listeners (or even some of them) will not perceive the information or misinterpret it because of some prejudice. Sprague et al. (2008) point out that it is important to consider â€Å"specific speech situation†, i.e. the time of the meeting (p.100). The speaker should take into account whether the people had other meetings or this will be the first meeting they have, whether the audience is tired of listening or can easily perceive the information. Thus, the speaker can shape the communication and decide what style of speaking to choose (faster or slower) or whether to add some anecdotal stories which can let the audience get prepared for more important sets of information or not. The characteristic features which should be also considered may include many other points depending on each particular case. As has been stated above taking into account characteristics of the audience will enable the speaker to choose the right communication channels and use them more effectively. Sellnow (2004) defines communication channels as â€Å"the pathways through which messages are communicated† between the speaker and the audience and points out two major communication channels, auditory and visual (p.21). Both channels should be exploited during the in-person meeting since this will enable the speaker to communicate his/her information more effectively. For instance, the auditory channel is what the audience hears (Sellnow, 2004). Thus, the speaker should carefully choose words to make sure that his/her message has reached the audience properly. It is necessary to point out that intonation and the way of speaking is also important, so the speaker should speak loudly and stress important points with the help of intonation, stress, etc. Visual channels are also very important since they enhance the information received from the auditory channels. The visual channels include not only visu als like diagrams, charts, pictures and illustrations. They also include facial expressions, gestures, eye contact and even appearance (Sellnow, 2004). Thus, speaker’s gestures can be descriptive and explanatory, so the speaker can support the auditory channels and can be sure that communication is effective since the audience receives the messages. At this point

Innovation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Innovation - Essay Example As an enabler of social, personal, business and information sharing interaction, Internet has had far reaching effects on the societies and individuals across the world. Previously unimagined, Internet has allowed people to have instant online access to information including news, education, and entertainment as well as allowed communication through email. While this facility has had a notable effect on individual lives and how we communicate and do business, the real societal changes lie elsewhere. The Internet has allowed democratisation of information where individuals and communities can now become producers in addition to being consumers of information. Domains like journalism and art, which were limited to mainstream and traditional spheres of influence, have opened up to individuals who can express and create their own identity and personal following. Social networking sites like Facebook and Youtube have given rise to new online relationships. While some of these never result in face to face contact in person, the phenomenon has enabled connections across geographical and cultural divides based on personal preferences, interest groups and vocational interests. Several social support groups have sprung up on the webs which have particularly helped those who are either shy or unable to be part of physical groups. The ability to be anonymous on the web is an advantage here. Finally, the Internet has increasingly become home for civic and political advocacy (Lin & Atkin, 20 07: p. 184). President Obama’s presidential campaign depended heavily on the Internet, for example. Tyler noted that there was nothing new about the Internet and that it merely allowed â€Å"new ways of doing old things† and did not have a social impact (Tyler, 2002). So, in essence, are the benefits or pitfalls caused by Internet indistinguishable from those we already know of? Perhaps the answer is not that

Should Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) be considered in the Research Paper

Should Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) be considered in the rating of Wall Street companies - Research Paper Example This poses the question whether CSR should be considered in rating of Wall Street companies. In this paper, CSR is discussed in cases for and against inclusion in Wall Street company ratings. Approaches to CSR, research and trends are also examined. The author argues that CSR is important and should be considered side by side the companies’ ratings so that stakeholders get a clearer picture about the companies’ operations in the society they work with. The author proposes a simple, qualitative rating scale as a starting point for something as universal as CSR for inclusion in rating Wall Street Companies. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is an ethical belief and practice that companies, just like individuals, are responsibilities as good stewards of the society in which they do business with (Wood, 1991). Corporations have an obligation to act in ways that will benefit or sustain society and that their responsibility is not lim ited to their profit. In the last decade, we have seen movements gather momentum requesting for more corporate social responsibilities in ethical practices, for the environment, the working conditions of employees, for the local communities, and towards all stakeholders from suppliers to post-consumption of products. CSR is soon to be integrated with the human resources, business development, operations, and relations (Barnea and Rubin, 2010). This paper will examine the two companies rated by Wall Street: Goldman Sachs and British Petroleum (BP), which very recently have been involved in practices that did not do well to the society in which they do business with. An attempt will be made to see if CSR should be considered in their ratings. In the year 2010, each of the three major credit rating agencies - Moody’s Investor Services, Standard & Poor's and Fitch Ratings - rated both of these companies mainly on their credit worthiness. In the same year, Fortune Magazine also na med them as two of the world’s most admired companies. The question then is whether these companies should be rated solely on scales that show their credit-worthiness or should these ratings also include a dimension that will show how well a company performing in the society in general. British Petroleum (BP) In April 2010, an explosion occurred on BP's oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico. The Coast Guard reported that 11 people were killed, 17 other others injured and about 4.9 million barrels of oil released to the Gulf of Mexico affecting Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. The oil spill caused extensive environmental damage to the sea and wildlife creatures in the Gulf of Mexico. It also damaged the fishing and tourism industries. The US Government held BP accountable for the damages. BP officials committed to shoulder all cleanup costs and other damages. In addition, the company is also being investigated for alleged unsafe practices which caused the occurrence on the rig leading to the explosion. An internal probe made BP admit to mistakes that led to the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. In 2010, Moody’s rated BP’s senior unsecured ratings as an Aa2 from Aa1. Fitch Ratings rated BP’s long-term issuer default rating and senior unsecured rating as an AA from AA+. Reuters also reported in June 2010 that Standard and

Measurements of Universal Health in Ethiopia

Measurements of Universal Health in Ethiopia TASK The UK Department for International Development (UK-DFID) has recently decided to allocate funds for establishing universal health coverage in low income countries. The Director of the Global Health Division of the UK-DFID invites you to submit a scoping report with a critical assessment of the type of indicators needed to evaluate and monitor universal health coverage in a low income country of your choice. Your report will be judged on the basis of the following criteria: Illustration and critical assessment of at least 5 relevant direct or indirect indicators (statistics), their sources and overall quality of data. The sources (online) and any other supporting references cited should be numbered either in the footnote or in the Bibliography at the end of the document. Use and reliability of those selected indicators for planning and programme interventions Potential country-specific barriers, where applicable, in implementing the universal health coverage Clarity of presentation, independent critical thinking and creativity One of the main aims of the UK department for international development is to promote the development and eradication of poverty through the establishment of Universal Global Health coverage in low in come countries. As a result this scoping report focuses on Ethiopia a low income region which has a history of high birth rates, famine, war and the second highest population in Africa (91million) [1]. The regions health care system as consequence is among one the poorest in Africa, making it an ideal region in assigning the types indictors needed to provide UGH [2]. In order to monitor and evaluate UGH it is important to firstly acknowledge that there is no one metric measurement or indicator of health, as health differs from one individual to another and as a outcome an average or optimum is often defined to monitor the overall health of the population [3]. The World Health Report 2013 has provided a widely used framework in order to successfully monitor UGH [4]. Figure 1 illustrates the framework which focuses on three main areas of health. Service coverage: the vital health care services that are needed, Financial coverage: Ability to acquire these services without financial difficulty and Population coverage: the number people that have access to these services. The indictors used in this report aim to cover these three dimensions while also being tailored specifically to Ethiopia’s health requirements. Table 1: Statistics adapted from WHO data repository [8] Population using improved drinking-water sources (%) Year Rural Urban 1990 4% 80% 2000 19% 87% 2011 39% 97% Adequate access to clean water is a basic human right and the seventh Millennium Development Goal [5]. Clean water is essential to ample quality of life and is used in a diverse range of fields from basic hydration, irrigation, sanitation to complex health care institutions such as hospitals making it a vital component of health [6]. This indicator is categorised into ether improved or unimproved source with improved sources indicating clean water. This classification makes it a simple indicator allowing identification of areas where safe water sources are abundant and areas that need improved water source access, perhaps through water aid programs. This indicator is particularly useful as it can show the range of human impacts on the quality of water through the presence of nitrate as well as compounds and bacteria which can indicate waterborne pathogens the common cause of disease. [7]. Data is provided through national household surveys, the demographic health surveys (DHS) and RA DW (Rapid assessment of drinking water quality project) which is carried out by both the WHO and UNICEF with the DHS often providing high quality statistics [4]. Table 1 illustrates that the percentage of improved water sources is disproportionate from 97% users in urban area in 2011 compared to just 39% in rural areas in 2011. This suggests that water sanitation programs should be focused in rural areas where there are less people using improved drinking sources. The results also illustrate that although there are far more users of improved sources in urban areas, the number of users in rural area over three decades have seen a greater increase from just 4% in 1990 to over 39% in 2011 which could be attribute to better surveying in these areas in recent times. The indicator however is a proxy to number of people that have access to clean water as it shows the percentage of users of improved sources and not the amount people that have access to safe drinking water, meaning some soci al-economic groups such as the isolated poor or elderly are not accounted for as they are less likely to have â€Å"access† to these improved sources [7]. The indictor is limited only showing percentages for rural and urban areas; an indication of sub-urban regions would provide are more in-depth analysis of overall water quality in the region. Recognition of which gender the improved water source is mainly being used by i.e. men, women or children is also unaccounted for which could be crucial indicator as children are highly impacted from waterborne pathogens [2]. Furthermore even though water is being used from an improved source, this water still needs to be obtained from larger sources leading to possible contamination during transportation or even storage invalidating the indicator. Guidelines presented by WHO for safe drinking water is also assumed constant over time by indictor limiting it accuracy [9], overall this indicator can provide an overview of water quality b ut accuracy of the indicator can be skewed to urban areas. The overall health of the population is often measured by life expectancy, this indicator is widely used and data regarding this indictor is readily available. Life expectancy is a longer term measure of health and an overall indication of health over the years. Life expectancy in Ethiopia has been improving over the years from around 55 years at birth in 2004 to 62 years in 2011[8]. It is an important indicator in reflecting the overall mortality of the population; this is helpful for the governmental as it illustrates the trend through time of the overall population and improvements in life expectancy can reflect better nutrition, hygiene and effective medical intervention within the nation [10]. However unless a comprehensive cohort/period life table is developed, life expectancy at birth assumes that health conditions remain constant throughout the lifespan of the individual, an inaccurate assumption given the higher mortality rates in the first year of life and lower mortality a t around middle age. Table 3: Data adapted from WHO, World Bank and DHS. [8], [10],[11] BCG among 1 year’s olds (%) [8] Under 5 mortality rate per 1000 births [10] Children Fully Immunised (%) [11] Year: 1980 0 240 N/A 2000 51% 146 14.3% 2011 80% 68 24% Vaccination is an essential component of health in many low-income countries with the fourth MDG main aim being the reduction of child morbidity and mortality [5]. Immunisation can help reduce mortality and usually is cost effective while also being an excellent indictor of the health among children. BCG is the best indicator of full immunisation coverage as the WHO states children can be classified full immunised once they have received a tuberculosis vaccination (BCG) [9] therefore a BCG indicator is vital in monitoring health of children. Table 3 illustrates the importance of BCG vaccination with the percentage of coverage improving over the years from no vaccination in 1980 to over 80% of 1 year olds having being immunised in 2012 suggesting an improvement in the protection of children against TB, this is further reinforced by the decline in under five mortality rate. The validity of the indictor can be backed up by it its correlation to under 5 mortality rate; Table 3 illustrate s a linear relationship in increasing immunisation and declining child mortality, showing the success of the indictor in monitoring UGH among children. However universal health through immunisation in reality is hindered by a delay in diagnosis of tuberculosis in Ethiopia which can exacerbate the disease [12], combined with the majority of children and citizens being concentrated in rural areas where there is no real means of transportation available to attend a hospital for vaccination, [2] making the indicator biased to people who can access vaccination facilities. The BCG indicator is effectively used in TB prevention, treatment and psychological suffering through basic programmes such as stop TB strategy programme [4]. Data provides estimations between the accurately reported immunisation figures by national authorities and those where data may present misleading figures [8]. This means the data may not be fully accurate as it is a estimation of actual and misclassified figures. However this indicator is vital for monitoring and guiding disease and eradication programmes and efforts in Ethiopia. Although BCG percentage shows a high coverage over tuberculosis it does to provide accurate analysis of UGH in terms of other diseases such as malaria. The percentage of full immunised children is a better indictor for UGH as it indicates children which are protected against all diseases. However only 24% of children are fully immunised which suggest that although 80% of children are immunised this is misleading as this 80% are only immunised against TB and not other deadly diseases. Although the WHO suggests children are not fully covered against diseases until they are immunised from TB, the immunisation of other diseases prior to the TB vaccination needs to be considered. Anaemia is defined as a condition which is characterised by low levels of haemoglobin in our blood, in the case of Ethiopia anaemia is a major concern with low come groups being among highest at risk [13]. This is an important indicator in children as anaemia is associated with impaired mental and physical development and increasing morbidity and mortality. This indicator is particularly helpful because it has allowed a number of preventions programmes to be put into place such as enhanced outreach Strategy and Targeted supplementary foods intervention programme which aim to improve nutrient in among children. More than 44% of population in 2011 is still anaemic with 21% percent of children having moderate anaemia illustrating the importance of this indicator in monitoring UGH in children and future programme intervention development. However this indicator is constraint to children limiting its capability, it is also misleading as there are also other factors related to anaemia such iron deficiency, and Vitamin A levels which this indictor does not account for providing inaccurate assessment [9]. Table 3: Indicators adapted from WHO, DHS and UN [8],[11],[14] Maternal Mortality Ratio MMR per 100,000 live births [8] Live Births Delivered at Health Facility (%) [11] Births attended by skilled heath Personnel (%) [15] Year: 1990 950 N/A NA 2005 700 5.3% 5.7% 2011 350 9.9% 10.0% Maternal mortality in Ethiopia is among the highest in the world and it is the biggest killer of women in Sub-Saharan Africa with the fifth MDG aiming for a reduction of 75% from 1990 to 2015 [5]. Maternal health is often measured by the maternal mortality ratio which is expected to be useful in indicating the deaths among women, the risk associated with pregnancy, monitoring achievement towards MDG 5 and the capacity of health systems within Ethiopia to provide effective health care [14]. Table 1 illustrates the maternal mortality ratio, illustrating initially that there is reduction in maternal morality in Ethiopia and an improvement over the years with some considerable progress towards MDG 5. However the MMR ratio does not take into consideration several key factors that can impact women during her pregnancy. The indictor is irrespective of the duration of pregnancy and also where the birth took place giving an inaccurate assumption how amount of mortalities. The relationship bet ween the MMR to percentages of live births that took place in health facility shows a poor correlation because although there has been a significant reduction in mortality from 1990 to 2011 this is misleading as only 9.9% of these births took place in adequate well equipped hospitals suggesting MMR should be higher. Measuring mortality is difficult and inaccurate as it is a ratio based on estimations between the total maternal deaths and total live births which does not account for women which have died during the pregnancy. The ratio also fails to show the factors which lead to high or low level of mortality which could prove vital to reducing mortality as an indication of this would allow a focus in future planning to reduce the MMR. Sources of data are varied with different methods being used to derive country estimates, with many rural areas having no data at all making results biased [14]. A more accurate indictor of UGH of maternal health is number of live births in health fac ilities and births attended by skills personal, both indictors show low percentages suggesting and poor health care service as an increase in number births at hospital and with better equipped personnel is likely to reduce maternal deaths. These two indictors also show why maternal death rates are so high as apposed just showing number of deaths. The MMR indictor used is not a reliable indictor of UGH among pregnant women and more focused indictors such one shown in table 3 are recommended for UGH. As stated in the introduction there is no one measure of universal health among a country, individual, or the world. Each indicator has it own weakness and strengths as illustrated above. All the indictors in this report have been chosen as they are most suited to Ethiopia and it requirements, this report suggests that some indictors i.e. Immunisation and percentage population using improved water sources may be better indictors than other such as life expectancy and maternal health in monitoring UGH. However any indictors used to monitor UGH should be chosen for future policy planning, MDG assessments and intervention schemes. Bibliography: 1: The World Bank, working for a world free of poverty. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ethiopia (Accessed 15 February 2014). 2: Murray, J.S., Moonan, M. Recognizing the healthcare needs of Ethiopia’s children. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing 2012; 17(4):339-343. 10.1111/j.1744-6155.2012.00328.x (Accessed 15th February 2014). 3: Abraha, M.W., Nigatu, T.H. Modeling trends of health and health related indicators in Ethiopia (1995-2008): a time-series study. Health Research Policy and Systems 2009;7(1)1-17 http://www.health-policy-systems.com/content/7/1/29/abstract (Accessed 12 February 2014). 4: World Health Organization, research for universal health coverage: world health report 2013. The World Health organisation 2013. 5: United Nations Millennium Development Goals: We can end poverty http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ (Accessed 12 February 2014). 6: Onda, K., LoBuglio, J., Bartram, J. Global Access to Safe Water: Accounting for Water Quality and the Resulting Impact on MDG Progress. 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Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and Calverton, Maryland, USA: Central Statistical Agency and ICF International. 10: The World Bank, Indicators. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator (Accessed 13 February 2014). 11: Demographic and Health Surveys, Country Quickstats. http://www.measuredhs.com/Where-We-Work/Country-Main.cfm?ctry_id=65c=EthiopiaCountry=Ethiopiacn=r=1 (Accessed 15th February 2014). 12: Demissie, M., Lindtjorn, B., Berhane, Y. Patient and health service delay in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in Ethiopia. BMC Public Health 2002; 2(1) 1-7 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/2/23/abstract (Accessed 13th February 2014). 13: Balarajan, Y., Ramakrishnan, U., Ozaltin, E., Shankar, A.H., Subramanian, S.V. Anaemia in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet 2011;378(9809) 2123–2135 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62304-5 (Accessed 16Th February 2014). 14: The World Health Organisation, Indicator and measurement registry. http://apps.who.int/gho/indicatorregistry/App_Main/view_indicator.aspx?iid=26 (Accessed 19th February 2014). 15: UN Data, Statistics. http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=MDGf=seriesRowID:570 (Accessed 19 February 2014).

How does Caryl Churchill affect the acting and production process throu

How does Caryl Churchill affect the acting and production process through her script writing Caryl Churchill has furthered feminist performance theory, in the last twenty years, and broadened traditional views of gender roles through her script writing. For example, her plays Cloud Nine and Top Girls defy traditional convention, with Cloud Nine’s cross-gender casting and Top Girl’s pro-Thatcherite ethos as its foundation. Churchill has affected the acting and production process in the way she has written her scripts, such as the mentioned pieces, and the way in which theatre is performed. â€Å"Her work is heavily influenced by the practices of experimental and physical theatre: not one to make it easy for an audience, she prefers to tell a tale in a challenging, sometimes meandering way.† The language in Far Away appears very normal within the context of the piece, though the subject of the book is something that most audiences would either not understand or be disgusted by. â€Å"†¦ and in fact I killed two cats and a child under five so it wasn’t that different from a mission.† – Joan Churchill’s script, for Far Away, can be seen to turn our present day society into a collection of barbarous individuals, sparing no exception to the animal kingdom and Mother Nature. One could see this as Churchill’s own portrayal of the War of the Worlds. Joan shows concern regarding where the loyalties of the nearby river lies. This could be seen as quite an absurd gesture, however falls into place within the context of the piece and the society in which the characters are living in. Everything on planet Earth is at war with one another. Churchill’s post modern script can be seen to affect the acting and production process by the way in which it transforms the actors into characters, that are unrelated to present day society, who far more in touch with their primordial instinct of ‘survival of the fittest’ in this unimaginable war. â€Å"I’ve shot cattle and children in Ethiopia. I’ve gassed mixed troops of Spanish, computer programmers and dogs. I’ve torn starlings apart with my bare hands†¦ I could go on all day doing that, it was better than sex.† - Todd. The characters within Churchill’s script appear almost quite normal at the beginning, in regards to the very start of the play where the initial convers... ...whereby at the end of the play Selby is in a managerial position. Though this was done in a more light-hearted spirit without the solemn tones that hang about Top Girls. This can be seen to be the way in which Churchill’s attention to current affairs in plays such as Top Girls and After Dinner Joke have affected the acting and production process. Caryl Churchill can be seen to have affected the acting and production process of today’s theatre in many different ways through her script writing. The ‘chilling vision’ of the future in Far Away pushes the actors into a new world, a new approach to their character studies. Top Girls, a reflection of Thatcherite Britain in the late seventies and eighties, takes the actors back to a milestone for the women population of Britain. After Dinner Joke, another reflection of the fight for Third World awareness and the fight against poverty and famine in the late seventies that would lead to such projects as Band Aid. This paper has seen how these particular scripts have affected the acting process, by pushing actors to achieve new feats, and the production process, by the way in which a play is staged and cast.